rhyorikawa:
> What I'm curious about with this book and the film Gohatto is why the
Shinsengumi is
> being used to explore the theme of nanshoku (male-male love)? Is
there documented
> historical reasons for this?
***There are folktales which imply nanshoku occurred within the ranks
of the Shinsengumi. Over time these tales became popularized to the
point that it has become fact and I think logically in the minds of many it
seems "logical" that men living in close quarters turned to each other
especially during those dry periods between their paychecks so to speak
and they couldn't go to the red-light district.
In popular media it's accepted canon to have Hijikata and Okita pairing
when there is little to suggest they were more than friends in history. I
think it has alot to do with the issue that Okita as a TB patient has to
be "perpetually weak/ill" (even though that does not have to be the case
as TB patients have cycles of illness and "normal" periods) and if he had
an attractive older friend like Hijikata or even Kondou then it doesn't hurt
to imagine them as lovers with the weakened Okita playing a female
role. Combine nanshoku with the tragedy of TB and you have a really
compelling love story where one dies alone yearning for his lover and
his comrades (below is a very old essay about Okita and TB).
The details from history which support nanshoku amongst the
Shinsengumi are:
1) There was one very attractive Shinsengumi foot soldier and we do
have his name who may have caused some fighting amongst the ranks
2) Itou Kashitaro was described, historically, as being attractive to the
point he made men and women take notice when he was out and about
on his strolls although we don't know for sure Itou's sexual leanings.
If not, why Shinsengumi and not - say - the 47 Ronin or
> Miyamoto Musashi?
** I'm sure that somewhere the 47 Ronin have been portrayed in yaoi
media but I think because the group had 2 periods as retainers and then
separation before carrying out the plot, people are less likely to think of
them as practicing nanshoku. I have never studied the 47 Ronin in detail.
In contrast the Shinsengumi's theme of "togetherness" comes across
more strongly and I think that is the reason they are so popular in yaoi
media.
** Miyamoto Musashi, historically, did have male partners.
GOJOU HAJIME is an interesting work and while I can't say it was written
for -just- yaoi fangirls I think it'll give people alot of insight into what
yaoi fans would like to read and why they find the "emotional" voice of
the characters so appealing.
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The Afflicted Swordsman: Tuberculosis and Okita Soujiro
--------------------------------------------------------------------
"It was a cough, apparently---a man's cough
a cough devoid of any
zest for life or love, which didn't come in spasms, but sounded as if
someone were stirring feebly in a terrible mush of decomposing organic
material." (Mann 12)
:: Edo Era :: Treatment :: Society :: Fiction :: Bibliography ::
The following is a brief discussion on tuberculosis and its possible
effects on both historical Okita and how the illness aided in the
development of his fictional persona. Ofcourse, a physical condition does
not fully "define" a human being, so please do not view this exploration
as an oversimplification of him as just TB patient when obviously he was
so much more.
To understand the biology of TB please do not rely only on websites
which often simplify the disease. Try to seek out medical texts, or
journal articles written by people in the medical community and
compare what we know now to the information available in 19th century
Japan to understand how Okita dealt with this illness. I am not a
bacteriologist nor a doctor so I will only touch on the science aspect.
Prior to Robert Koch's discovery of the tubercle bacillus, the cause of
tuberculosis, was a universal mystery subject to superstition and intense
fear. There are six different kinds of disease causing Mycobacteria. Type
A was the variation found in Japan since prehistoric times. Before the
1880s some scientists had theorized that the tubercle bacilli floated in
the air and infected people. The theory was very close to scientific fact
but was rejected by a majority of the scientific community at the time
because few believed in the existence of "bacteria".
"Airborne particles [of tubercle bacilli] formed by the evaporation of
minute respiratory droplets can carry several bacilli
Respiratory
functions as simple as coughing, sneezing, spitting, and singing produce
such particles
in a closed room they disperse like tobacco smoke."
(Johnston 27)
Exposure to the tubercle bacillus does not have to lead to infection.
Other factors such as the host's environment, age (puberty and old age
reduces the body's ability to resist infection), sex, nutrition, working
conditions (exhaustion can initiate active tuberculosis or exacerbate the
condition) as well as extreme mental stress (the last factor has been
observed by modern clinicians but there has been no extensive
experimentation) can determine the possible onset of illness.
Japan's experience with the white plague peaked between 1890-1950
and even the records between those years may not be accurate due to
frequent, at times, purposeful misdiagnosis to protect both the doctor
and patient's reputation. Often, innocuous complex phrases like caseous
pneumonia or bronchial catarrh were used in place of the most
ominous "consumption" on paperwork. The stigma attached to
tuberculosis will be further explored below.
Edo Era [return to top]
Many foreign doctors and visitors who entered Japan right before the
Restoration noted the prevalence of tuberculosis.
(this section will deal with what people believed and practiced back
then, not what is scientifically accurate today)
I have often read that Okita was a victim of pulmonary consumption so
what did that mean in his lifetime?
Pulmonary consumption "translates into Japanese as haibyo, or 'lung
disease'" (Johnston 418) or the modern medical term hai kekkaku. An
even more common term was rosai (in Chinese, lao ji) (Johnston 43)
which appeared in Japanese texts for many centuries. Ro means "to
consume" and sai means "to hold a funeral ceremony" because after
suffering from emaciation, fever, night sweats, violent coughing and
even the external appearance of tubercles (kekkaku) the victim most
certainly died.
How was Okita treated? [return to top]
Very likely his treatment was influenced by the techniques prescribed by
Manase Dosan (1507-1574). Manase used Chinese medical theories and
the Tokugawa sanctioned this medical approach. Aside from
popularizing the term rosai, Manase standardized a four step diagnosis
(summary from Johnston 44) procedure involving
1) Visual observation, noting skin color, weight, weakness, condition of
the hair, sputum, feces, urine, and feces
2) Auditory observation by listening to the sounds in the chest by
tapping.
3) Interrogation using conversation to collect information from the
patient about appetite, waste elimination, emotions and what factors
induce the onset of illness
4) Pulse diagnosis a sophisticated art "that analyzed the strength, speed,
locations, and other aspects of the pulse to facilitate the identification of
a disease" (Johnston 44)
Common treatment included moxibustion "(a method of cauterizing
specific points on the body according to principles similar to those used
in acupuncture)" (Johnston 44), recommendations to eat a diet rich in
eggs, chickens (note that they are all proteins), and residence in a rural
area (western doctors also recommended exposure to clean dry air).
One of the behavioral patterns noted by doctors of this era was that
excessive alcohol and sexual intercourse preceded illness thus they often
prescribed patients to abstain from both. Interestingly, there is a rumor
that Okita was a "clean child" or celibate. It is mentioned in
Shinsengumi "lore" that Hijikata gave the captain of his first squad the
medicine he once peddled, the Ishida Sanyaku (I am not certain about
the spelling).
Generally, each symptom was treated because again, the cause had not
been identified. The most fascinating and common medicine was opium
in "tea" [Edit 5/19/2006] (This may be an an Asian form of poppy-head
tea or a similar derivative) which was believed to help stabilize the
digestive system and prevent diarrhea (tuberculosis affected many parts
of the body including the intestines). Note that there were extremely
strict laws against opium usage during the Tokugawa because the result
of this drug's prevalent use in China and Opium War were well known to
the bakufu.
[Edit 5/19/2006] "There were no specific cures for tuberculosis,
pneumonia or bronchitis and opium helped to alleviate symptoms,
subduing coughing, expectoration and pain even if it could not touch the
root cause. Discharges of all sorts, too, were dealt with by the drung.Its
use in haemorrhage was well-known---'of all the wonderful
influences...exerted by opium, that by which it sustains the powers of
life...arrests the flow of blood, is the most extraordinary,' commented a
medical journal in 1846." (Berridge 67 originally from 'Review of Dr
Griffin's Medical and Physiological Problems, British and Foreign Medical
Review, 221 (1846) pp. 105-107). Although the example is from western
medicine, a similar belief was found in the East. Remember, the British
obtained opium from Asia and studied its many uses in that part of the
world.
Matsumoto Ryojun, physician to Tokugawa Yoshinobu, was close to
Kondou Isami so very likely he knew of the medical condition of
members in the Shinsengumi such as Okita. After the Restoration,
Matsumoto became an important figure in establishing medical
education. If you have information further establishing the relationship
between this physician and Okita please contact shinsengumihq(a)
yahoo.com.
[Edit 5/19/2006] As mentioned earlier, opium was frequently used in the
treatment of TB. According to this website "An anecdotal story about his
unorthodox techniques-- he successfully treated Tokugawa Yoshinobu's
stress condition by having him take opium (against government
regulation) and sleep for a day." (translated by Hirotada Tokugawa).
[Edit 5/19/2006] Matsumoto's connection to the Shinsengumi can be
seen in the fact that Kondou Isami met the physician. Matsumoto also
left an account of his meeting with the Shinsengumi chief (See
Hillsborough Shinsengumi 104-105). Furthermore, after Kondou was
shot by surviving members of the Itou Affair, he sought Matsumoto's
care in Osaka (Hillsborough Shinsengumi 140). Matsumoto's last
connection to the Shinsengumi is his involvement in composing a text for
an important memorial to Kondou and Hijikata in Hino (Hillsborough
Shinsengumi 174, 181-182).
"According to an old proverb, the best treatment for tuberculosis
was opium and lies." (Rosenberg II)
How did society treat sick people like Okita? [return to top]
It is highly likely that Okita's condition was kept secret as long as
possible for practical reasons. The Shinsengumi lived and worked as a
unit, a community, and this illness would affect their morale. There are
also cultural beliefs connected to pollution which should be taken into
consideration too.
Consumption fell under the category of fuchi no yamai or incurable,
disfiguring disease. One of the symptoms of TB is hemoptysis or the
coughing up of blood, which related the illness to "red impurities" such
as menstruation, child birth and so forth. Note that blood was one of
many liquids expelled by the patient, usually they would cough up the
decomposing cheeselike material which accumlulated in their lungs as
well.
A more heavy term is gobyo or "karmic disease" which did not mean
that bad karma caused the disease but that it was inescapable like the
fruition of past action. Karma does not always mean "negative" action.
The significance of this term is that there is nowhere to run or hide from
the inevitable.
Marriage would have been almost impossible. Both male and female
patients could start a tubercular family lineage or kekkaku ketto. There
are numerous accounts of women divorced due to the sickness for fear
that it would be passed down to their children via breast milk. Men,
unable to maintain their family line or women unable to marry or
produce children were generally marginalized by society.
Victims were usually buried outside the village graveyard or separate
from the official family grave for fear that the pollution would mark their
blood line as a yamai make or diseased lineage. The belief that disease
could be inherited persisted well into the 20th century.
Fiction[return to top]
How come Okita is always smiling, childish and ummm girly?
Not all fictional portrayals show as cheery and upbeat but many do
because maintaining a positive attitude was believed to be beneficial.
The following representative quotes are from a medical text however
they may be outdated.
Again, writers and artists may have worked with these generalizations
to "build" the character of Okita, which means that it may not accurately
reflect on the historical person.
"The belief that there is a specific `tuberculous personality'
characterized by undue cheerfulness (Spes Phthisica)
and marked
intellectual productivity has gained wide support." (Calden 275)
"Tuberculous patients behave like deprived children." (Dunbar 226)
Due to the patient's dependence on others during their illness, the
researchers chose representative quotes from the 570 subjects they
used. One said "I feel like a baby again" (Calden 288)
"Let us assume that the patients have passed beyond the unavoidable
breaking-in period and have settled down to being ill and to being ill with
tuberculosis. Afterwards a variety of mental changes may take place
which time and again have puzzled observers. It has been said
that tuberculous patients are predominantly sensitive, neurotic,
depressed, optimistic, elated, euphoric, easily suggestible, whimsical,
CHILDISH, selfish, self-centered, capricious
Most patients with
tuberculosis are in a mood of mild overt or concealed depression and
anxiety, which are normal and adequate reaction to indisious disease
Offsprings of these reactions and defenses against them are defiance,
ULTRA-CHEERFULNESS." (Wittkower 164)
"Much has been written on the subject of tuberculosis and genius
[list
of geniuses]. The truth of the matter seems to be that tuberculosis is a
common disease, and therefore also occurs in men and women of
genius
tuberculosis for a variety of reasons favors fantasy production
and the dreaded limitation of their span of life stimulates their
productivity." (Wittkower 155-6)
There was an entire GENRE devoted to tuberculosis both in the West
and Japan.
Usually the illness is associated with young frail, beautiful women.
Interestingly, many girls after their first menses WERE likely to get TB,
especially if they had a lower intake of protein (note many Japanese had
a vegetarian and fish diet that time). We know that the Shinsengumi
were the subject of folktales and even the novel Nakazato Kaizan's
DAIBOSATSU-TOGE [the film SWORD OF DOOM] (although Okita was
not feminine or childlike in this work) it is easy to see how a doomed
swordsman with TB all of sudden takes on female qualities which would
solidify him as a perpetually tragic figure in fiction. Most patients
regardless of gender did experience exhaustion and thus if a masculine
swordsman is constantly weak he gradually becomes more and more
like the gender associated with physical weakness.
"Life means that form is retained even though matter is being
transformed." (Mann 262)
Bibliography[return to top]
Berridge, Virginia and Griffith Edwards. Opium and the People : opiate
use and drug control policy in nineteenth and early twentieth century
England . New York : Free Association Books, 1999. 1853434132 (hbk)
1853434140 (pbk)
Ellison, David L. Healing Tuberculosis in the Woods: Medicine and
Science at the End of the Nineteenth Century. Connecticut: Greenwood
Press, 1994.
I highly recommend this book
Eds. Green, Gareth M., Thomas M. Daniel, Wilmot C. Ball, Jr. Koch
Centennial Memorial 100th Anniversary: Announcement of the Discovery
of the Tubercle Bacillus by Robert Koch March 24, 1882 New York:
American Lung Association 1982.
Hillsborough, Romulus. Shinsengumi: The Shogun's Last Samurai Corps
Tuttle Publishing ISBN: 0804836272
Johnston, William. The Modern Epidemic: A history of tuberculosis in
Japan Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University
Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-57912-7
Mann, Thomas. The Magic Mountain New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995,
Rosenberg, Charles E. "The Therapeautic Revolution," in Morris J. Vogel
and Charles E. Rosenberg, eds., The Therapeutic Revolution.
Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979.
Sparer M.D., Phineas J. PERSONALITY STRESS AND TUBERCULOSIS
New York: International Universities Press, Inc 1956.
Calden PhD, Lewis M.D., Thurston PhD "The Patient Looks at
Tuberculosis" (275-299)
Dunbar M.D. Med.Sc.D., Ph.D, Flanders. "Anxiety, Stress and
Respiratory Diseases Especially Tuberculosis" (208-232)
Wittkower M.D., Eric D. "Psychological Aspects" pages 153-174
Wittkower Associate Prof of Psychiatry McGill University, Montreal CA